The Nilamata
Purana
A Brief Survey
by Dr. Ved Kumari Ghai
The
Nilamata is a Kashmiri Purana referred
to by Kalhana as one of the sources of the ancient
history of Kasmira. Buhler, whom goes the credit
of saving its manuscripts, states on page 41 of
his Report, "It great value lies therein that
it is a real mine of information regarding the
sacred places of Kashmir and their legends which
are required to explain the Rajatarangini and that
it shows how Kalhana has used his sources".
But as a matter of fact the Nilamata gives
besides, the account of sacred places, a lot of
information about the Kasmiri way of living. The
picture of ancient 'Kasmira' presented by its
study is not complete and compact, still it is
significant for its value which is supplementary
to that of the Rajatarangini. While the
Rajatarangini acquaints us with kings, queens and
ministers of 'Kasmira', the Nilamata generally
speaks of common men in their homes, streets,
gardens and temples. The life of the common
people, the food and drinks they took, the
amusements they resorted to, the currents of
religious thoughts they followed and the rites and
ceremonies they performed throughout the year are
described therein. If the Rajatarangini is
important from the point of view of the political
history of 'Kasmira', the Nilamata is no less
important for the cultural history of that part of
the country.
Date
Kalhana (12th Century A.D.)
refers to it as a work of great antiquity. The
absence of the term 'avatara' and the use of the
term 'Pradurbhava' for incarnation of gods,
non-mention of Kalki, Krisna's consort Radha and
the sacred leaf of Tulasi, mention of Buddha as an
incarnation of Visnu in a spirit of catholicity
and the incorporation of its various verses into
the Brahma Purana long before the time of
Laksmidhara (1104-1154 A.D.) further indicate its
early date. The textual study of the work shows
that some alterations and additions have been made
in it after the ninth or tenth century A.D. in
order to incorporate into it the monistic Saiva
Philosophy of Kasmira. Had the Nilamata been
composed after the ninth century A.D. there would
have been no scope for such change. The lower
limit of the date thus may be eigth century A. D.
and the upper one about the sixth century A.D. as
Buddha began to be regarded as an incarnation of
Visnu from about 550 A.D.
Out-line of the contents
The Nilmata opens with
Janamejaya's enquiry from Vaisampayana as to why
the king of 'Kasmira' did not participate in the
war of Mababharata although his kingdom was not
less important than any other in the country.
Vaisampayana states that some time before the
Mababharata war was fought, king Gonanda of
Kasmira had been invited by his relative
Jarasandha to help him in a war against the
yadavas. Gonanda complied with his request and was
slain on the battle field by Krsna's brother, Bala.
In order to avenge his father's death, Gonanda's
son Damodara went to Gandhara to fight with Krsna
who had gone there to attend a Svayamvara. Krsna
killed Damodara in the fight but taking into
consideration the high sanctity of Kasmira, he
coronated his rival's pregnant widow Yasovati.
Damodara's Posthumous son Bala Gonanda was a minor
at the time of the great war, so he did not join
either the Kauravas or the Pandavas.
Vaismpayana points out
the importance of 'Kasmira' by referring to its
numerous charms and its identification with Uma.
He points out further that the valley was
originally a lake known as Satisaras. This leads
to the question about the origin of 'Kasmira' to
which Vaisanipayana replies by relating a dialogue
held previously between Gonanda and the sage
Brahadasva.
Brahadasva gives at first
the account of the divisions of time, the
destruction of the world at the end of manvantara,
the presevation of Manu and the seeds in a ship,
the birth of the land and the lake, of Sati, the
origin of various tribes from Kasyapa and Visnu's
allottment of Satisaras to the Nagas. Then follows
the story of the demon Jalodbbava born in the
waters and reared by the Nagas. Having obtained
boons from Brahma, the demon began to destroy the
descendants of Manu dwelling in the lands of
Darvabhisara, Gandbars Jubundura, the Sakas, the
Khasas etc. Seeing this devastation, Nila the king
of the Nagas approached his father Kasyapa and
prayed to him to intercede with the gods to punish
the evil-doer and to save the innocent victims. He
requested the gods, Brahma, Visnu and Siva to do
the needful. Visnu followed by Brahma, Siva and
various other deities, proceeded to Naubandhana to
punish the demon. The demon was imperishable in
the waters; so Visnu asked Ananta to make an
outlet for the waters by breaking forth the
mountain-barriers. He did accordingly. Visnu then
cut off the demon's head with his disc. Now the
dry land being available in the valley, Kasyapa
expressed the desire that it should be inhabited
by the Nagas as well as by the descendants of
Manu. The Nagas, however, flatly refused to have
Manavas as their co-hahitants. Filled with rage
Kasyapa cursed them to live with the Pisacas. At
the request of Nila the curse was modified to the
extent that the Pisacas would go every year for a
period of six months to the sea of sand and the
Manavas would live in the land jointly with the
Nagas during that period. Visnu further assured
the Nagas that the occupation of Kasmira valley by
the Pisacas would last for four ages only.
After the passing away of
the four ages, the Manavas, as usual, had gone out
for six months. An old Brahmana, Candradeva did
not accompany them. Troubled by the Pisacas he
approached the Naga King Nila and begged of him to
ordain that 'Kasmira' might henceforth be
inhabited by Manavas without the fear of
emigration. Nila complied with this request on the
condition that the Manavas should follow his
instructions revealed to him by Kesava. Candradeva
lived for six months in the palace of Nila and was
initiated into the mysteries of rites or
ceremonies prescribed by Nila. In Caitra, when the
emigrant population of 'Kasmira' came back, he
related the whole incident to Virodaya - king of
Manavas. The lengthy dialogue held between Nila
and Candradeva describes sixty five rites.
ceremonies and festivals many of which are similar
to those mentioned in other Puranic works and
observed in many parts of India, while a few are
peculiar to Kasmira only. At Janamejaya's enquiry
as to what Gonanda had asked after listening to
the teachings, another dialogue between Gonanda
and Brhadasva follows. Gonanda expresses his
desire to know the names of the principal Nagas
dwelling in Kasmira and Brahadasva enumerates not
fewer than Sir hundred Nigas. He expresses his
inability to enumerate all the Nagas, as their
number was too great. He further refers to four
Nagas, the guardians of directions and relates the
story of the Naga Sadangula and the Naga Mahapadma.
Then follows Gonauda's
enquiry about the sacred places of Kasmira and
Brhadasva's reply referring to various places
dedicated to Siva and other deities. Two names
Bhutesvara and Kapatesvara raise Gonanda's
curiosity which leads Brhadasva to relate
Bhutesvara Mahatmya and Kapatesvara Mahatmya. Then
follows the enumeration of the sacred places of
Visnu and other tirthas situated in the valley of
Kasmira. Thereafter is given the eulogy of the
river Vitasta and the work ends with the remark
that, as this treatise in the form of a dialogue
between Janamejaya and Vaisampayana was not useful
everywhere (i. e. was of local interest mainly),
Vyasa did not include it in the Maha Bharata lest
that should become too exhaustive.
Birth of 'Kasmira'
The Nilamata legend of the
origin of 'Kasmira' as a result of the draining
off of the lake, occurs in Kalhana's Rajatarangini,
and in a bit changed form, in the Mahavamsa, the
Chinese Vinaya of the Mula Sarvastivadin sect and
in the account of the travels of Hiuen Tsang.
Whether it was the basin-like shape of the valley
of 'Kasmira' which suggested this legend or the
memory of some old age when the area of Kasmira
under water was more than what it is now, was
responsible for it, cannot be stated with
certainty; but it is interesting to know that the
geological observations made in recent times
coroborate the assertion made in the Nilamata.
The lowest point in the
valley with high mouotain walls on all sides is
5200 feet high above the sea level, and the lowest
pass in the Pirpancal range, forming its outer
boundary, is 3000 feet above the valley. The only
outlet for the drainage of the valley is the
narrow rock-gorge at Baramula.
Now nearly half of the
area of this basin-shaped valley is occupied by
the Karewas (Flat-topped mounds composed of clay
and silt with thin layers of greenish sand) and
the present view to quote D. N. Wadia regards
"the Karewas as the surviving remnants of
deposits of a lake or series of lakes which once
filled the whole valley basin from end to
end". Of course it will be going too far to
suggest that some geological tests were at the
basis of this legend. The most plausible
hypothesis is that the idea of the great lake was
suggested by the basin-like shape of the valley
and after this, it was just one step more in the
making of mythology to attribute the drainage of
water through an outlet in sandstone wall of the
western corner of the basin, to a divinity like
Ananta.
Geography
Like other puranic works,
the Nilamata also deals with geography of the
world and mentions seven Dvipas, namely Jambu,
Saka, Kusa, Kraunca, Salmali, Gomeda and Puskara.
Of these seven, Jambudvipa as nine Varsas namely
Uttarakuru, Ramya, Hairanvata Badrasva, Ketumala,
Ilavrta, Harivarsa, Kimpursa and the last one i.
e. Bharataversa alone seems to present India
proper. More significant is the information about
the tirthas particularly of Kasmira, mentioned in
four lists occurring in the later half of the
work. These lists are of special interest for the
geography of Kasmira but it also deserves to be
noted that the reference being too brief it is not
possible to identify most of the place-names,
especially those which are not mentioned in
Kalhana's Rajatarangini or some other work of
geographical value. It is also interesting to note
the similarity of the nomenclature of Kasmira as
found in the Nilamata with that of other parts of
India. It seems that the people who had come from
various parts of India to inhabit the valley of
Kashmira named its beautiful spots after the
tirthas farriliar to them, they thus recognized
prayaga the holy confluence of the Ganga and the
Yamuna in the coofluence of the Vitasta and the
Sindhu and regarded the area extending from
Trikotisangama to Har and from the confluence of
the Pavana and the Rajobinduvinimala to Ciramocana,
as holy as Varanasi. The names like Sarasvati
Rsikulya, Ramahrada, Bhrgutunga, Mundaprastha,
Citrakuta, Bharatagiri Kamatirtha of Kasmira are
also names of various tirthas of other arts of
India.
Tribes
About the inhabitants of
ancient Kashmira, the Nilmata has preserved highly
valuable information. The original inhabitants of
be valley were the Nagas; then came the Pisacas
and the Manavas. Being the original occupants of
Kasmira, the Nagas did not like introduction of
the Pisacas or the Manavas into the valley, but
tbe selection was to be made between these two,
they preferred Manavas to the Pisacas. The other
tribes which are described occupying the
neighbouring countries are the Madras (inhabitants
the modern Sialkot and the surrounding regions
between the Irava and the Chandrabhaga) the Darvas
(inhabitants of Darva identified with the
districts of Jammu and Ballavar) the Abhisaras
(inhabitants of modern Punch and the area near it)
the Gandharas (inhabitants of Peshawar, Rawalpindi
etc.), Juhundaras probably same as Jaguda
(inhabitants of Afghanistan), the Sakas, the
Khasas, the Tarigams, Mandavas, the Antargiris and
the Bahirgiris. Indirect mention of Yavanas is
also made in the Naga name Yavanapriya.
Social, Political and
Economic Life
Regarding social, economic
and political life in~ Kashmira the Nilamata has
brought to light a few interesting points. The
Brahamanas, especially those who were "Itihasavidah"
and "Kalavidah" were highly honoured,
but the Sudras too were not considered degraded.
The humane treatment mcted out to the servants is
a pleasant feature of social organisation of
Kashmira revealed by the Nilamata. The Nilamata
often includes the servants also in the list of
the persons in whose company the house-holder
feasts and enjoys. The artisans like weavers and
carpenters etc. commanded so much respect in the
society as to exchange gifts with the higher
varnas during the Mahimana celebrations. The very
fact that the Nilamata describes the Sudras as
taking part in the coronation ceremony of the king
indicates that they were not cansidered debased.
Another enlivening
feature of the Kashmiri social life as seen in the
Nilamata is the position of women. Nowhere is she
considered "the living torch illuminating the
way to hell", or the devourer of the
intellect of men. There is no reference to any
veil worn by her and she moves quite freely in the
society emulating as it were the free moving
sparkling waters of the springs of the country. In
the moon-lit night of Kaumudi Mahotsava we find
her sitting beside the sacred fire in the company
of her husband, children, servants and husband's
friends, although it is not clear as to whether
she is merely a silent spectator or she takes
active part in the musical and dramatic
performances given during this night. She is
present in the common feast which takes place on
the next day. Not only in the festivals celebrated
at home, but also in the outdoor festivals, she is
seen enjoying herself. The peasant's wife is lucky
enough to participate in the joyous festival
celebrated in the refreshing open fields of nature
in connection with the ploughing of the fields and
sowing of seed. The Nilamata does not deny
water-sports to the ladies of Kasmira. The young
maidens, it says, "should specially play in
the waters" during the celebrations of
Sravani festival. Playing with men folk is allowed
to women. "The joyful ladies", it says
"dressed in their best attire, perfumed with
scents and decorated with ornaments should sport
in the company of men on the last day of Mahimana
celebrations." The ladies of the home are
honoured on various occasions. On the full moon
day of Margasirasa, the gift of a pair of red
clothes is prescribed for a Brahmana lady, for the
sister, for the paternal aunt and for the friend's
wife. The mention of the presentation of gifts to
friend's wife is quite significant as it could
have been possible only in a free atmosphere where
women were allowed to move freely with no
restrictions on their receipt of gifts from their
husband's friends.
As regards their place in
the religious life, they are not only allowed to
accompany their husbands in the performance of
various rites and ceremonies but are also enjoined
upon to perform singly some rites specially
prescribed for them. The predomioance of the
Goddesses in the religion depicted in the Nilamata
is another factor pointing to the high status of
women. The very land of 'Kasmira' is a mother
Goddess 'Kasmira', a form of Uma. Numerous
references are made to courtesans in connection
with the description of festivals. The use of a
simile comparing 'Kasmira' with a temple due to
the presence of tender ladies indicates the
popularity of the institution of Devadasis or
temple-dancers.
On the whole, the
Nilamata offers a pleasant picture of women of 'Kasmira'.
As a daughter she was trained in fine arts and was
allowed to move freely in the society. By giving
her in marriage, the father obtained religious
merits. As a wife she was loved and honoured by
her husband and as a mother she shone with her
sons who revered her highly. A would be mother
could even be installed on the throne on the
demise of her son-less husband-king.
This unconventional
account of the women of 'Kasmira' is quite
different from the account available in other
Puranas and so it gives a distinctive character of
the Nilamata.
Entertaining of guests is
another notable feature of the social life of
Kasmira depicted in the Nilamata. Even the king is
enjoined upon to honour the immigrants from all
the quarters.
The people were fond of
music, dancing, drama and otber means of
recreations, which indicates their general
prosperity depending upon agriculture aod trade.
The general terms used for the musical instruments
are Vadya, Vaditra and Vadyabhanda. We find
reference to Vina (the modern hundred stringed
Santoor of 'Kasmira' is probably satatantrivina or
Vana referred to in the Taittriya Samhita), Venu
(flute) Sankba ( conch), Pataha ( Drum ) and
Muraja ( tambourine ). Dances were performed on
religious occasions and in social gatherings held
in honour of seasonal and agricultural festivals.
The words "Preksa" mentioned in the
Nilamata refers to the tricol performances. The
Nilamata mentions also a peculiar Phrase "Preksadana"
literally meaninp "the gift of a dramatic
performance". It seems to have denoted
"a gift made for the arrangement of a
dramatic show". There may hgve existed some
dramatic clubs which have such shows on demand and
the injunction of "Yathavidhi preksadana"
i. e. the gift for the arrangement of a dramatic
show made in tbe proper procedure, may have been
made with reference to them.
As regards the art of
image-making, the Nilamata refers to images made
of stone, clay, gold, silver, copper, brass, wood,
sand, straw and ghee. References are made to
printings on the cloth, the wall and the ground.
The people are directed to decorate the Caityas
with beautiful paints on lord Buddha's birthday. A
circular pattern is drawn on the ground on which a
'Kashmira' bridegroom had to stand before entcring
for his marriage the house of the bride. This is a
direct descendant of bhumisodha mentioned in the
Nilamata.
Of the items of dress,
mention may be made of pravarana which seems to be
the same as pravara mentioned in the Mahabharaata
as a cloth offering protection against cold.
Kashmiri pheran is most probably derived from
pravarana.
Meat seems to have been a
popular item of diet otherwise there would have
been no necessity of prohibiting strongly the
eating of meat for five days dedicated to the
worship of Visnu. Wine is recommended as a drink
on new snow-fall day and Iraman Jari Pujana.
In the sphere of
political thought, there existed a belief in the
divinity of kingship along with the theory that
law is superior to the king. It is stated in a
verse that the king of 'Kasmira' is a part of Hara
and should not be disobeyed. The same verse is
quoted by Kalhana with the significant expression
"even a wicked one" added to the king.
Compared with Bhisma's statement in the
Mahabharata that a virtuous king is truly a god,
this difference of statement of the Rajatarangini
from that of the Nilamata shows a gradual
development of the theory of absolute monarchy.
The survival of a few republican elements is also
indicated by the terms pradhana and ganamukhya.
Concerning religious life
it shows not only the other cults adopting the
Naga deities but also the Naga cult bringing the
deities of other cults into its fold. Bhava
Mahadva and Sambhu which are names of Siva, Guha
and Kumara which are names of Siva's son, Narayana
and the four yuhas Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Anirudha
and Pradyumna, the epic heroes Rama, Lakshmana and
Yudhisthira all appear in the Naga list of the
Nilamata. On the whole the Nilamata reveals the
spirit of compromise and synthesis in the field of
religion. The Brahmanic deities, the Nagas, tbe
pisacas, the Buddha all receive their due share of
worship from the inhabitants of 'Kasmira'. The
followers of cults are stated to be free to
worship their respective deities but the different
deities are described as honouring one another and
thus creating an atmospbere in which various cults
are united.
In the field of
philosophical thinking the Nilamata presents the
same theistic samkhya which appears in the epics
and other Puranas. It would be going too far to
suggest that it contains the tenets of the
Moniastic Saiva philosophy of 'Kasmira'. It is
clear that the cult of Visnu, Brahman, Siva, Surya,
Durga, Nagas, Buddha etc. flourished side by side
in the time of the Nilamata Vaisnavism no doubt
occupies a prominent place in this work but there
is no indication of the creator of the creator,
illuminating Brahma. Uma is the mother
antagonistic attitude towards other cults. In the
field of philosophical thoughts the Nilamata
presents also a compromise regarding the problem
of creation; it uses the terminology of the
Samkhya referring to Indriyas, Indriyarthas,
Mababhutas Manas, Buddhi, Atma, Avyakta and Purusa;
but it does not accept its atheistic metaphysics.
The five gross physical elements-Earth, Water,
Fire, Wind and Ether - which may stand for the
solid, liquid, gaseous, aerial and ethereal states
of matter, are stated to be the supporters of the
world, but behind these is seen the working of the
force of the Supreme Spirit. The epithet
"Cause of the causes of the world"
applied to Visnu and Brahma indicates that along
with the Supreme Spirit, the final cause, there is
also Prakriti, the immediate cause of the world.
At one place, Shiva's epithet "Saksivat
sthitah" sounds like that Sankhya Purusa but
unlike the latter He is regarded as the creator,
the sustainer and the destroyer of the world.
Three qualities of Rajas, Sattva and Tamas are
also referred to and are associated with the power
of creation, protection and destruction.
The theology of the
Nilamata is replete with numerous gods and
goddeses. The trinity of Brahma, Visnu and Siva
plays due role but there are others like Indra,
Varuna, Yama, Karttikeya, Baladeva; Asvina,
Martits, Visvedevas, Vasus, Yaksas, Nagas,
Gandharvas, Prthivi, Surabhi, Sita, Saci, Laksmi,
Uma, Syama, Bharati, Prajna, Mati etc. The
tendency of describing one deity as the highest
among others at one time and transferring the same
epithet to the other at another time is clearly
perceptible in the praises of Brahma, Visnu, Siva,
Nila and the goddesses Uma and Laksmi. At some
places, Visnu is praised as the best amongst the
gods, unfathomable, the highest, the eternal, the
refuge of all gods, the lord of the gods, cause of
the causes of the world, the lord of three worlds,
worshipped by Siva, praised by Brahma, but at
other places Brahma is described as the cause of
the causes of the world, the lord of three worlds,
the lord of the god of the gods, the lord of all,
the omniscient, the real force behind all the
elements, the preceptor of the world and the
sustainer of the world. Siva is also eulogised as
the preceptor of the world, the lord of world, the
lord of the gods, the lord of the god of the gods,
and the highest lord.
Even the Naga deity Nila
is described as the lord of the gods, the creator
of the creator, illuminating Brahma. Uma is the
mother of all gods, higher than Sarva, and Laksmi
is raised to the highest position by saying that
all the goddesses are her forms.
The idea that the whole
world is God or a manifestation of God is also
present in the Nilamata. The whole earth is a form
of the goddess Sati. The earth, the water, the
air, the sky, the fire, the sun, the moon, and the
sacrficer, all these are regarded as eight forms
of Siva.
The doctrine of monism,
according to which there exists only a single
principle from which everything is evolved, is
also found in the Nilamata, Brahma in the Nilamata
seems to have been identified with the Brahma of
the Upanisadas, for He is recognized as the only
element in the universe except whom there exists
nothing. He is the knower and the thing to be
known, the body and the soul, the meditator, the
object of meditation and the meditation itself.
He is also of unknown
birth. In the eulogy of Nila there is a reference
to Brahma in the Upanisadic style. This Brahma is
indivisible, imperishable and the highest. Due to
its minuteness it is called Ether. The statement
that it is minute as well as great, uncreated as
well as possessed of limbs reminds one of similar
statements found in the Katha and the Svetasvatara
Upanisads. Of course, the Nilamata does not give
us clear-cut monism; it has just paved the way for
the Monistic Saiva Philosophy of Kasmira.
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